Impact of a growing elderly population on society
1. Introduction
Throughout history, the ageing population has been considered a burden on society. Both biological and social theories of ageing suggest that an ageing population is not a new phenomenon but an issue that has impacted society for some time. The concern about the ageing population is that with medical advances, an increased life expectancy and declining birth rates, the absolute and relative number of elderly people in many societies is growing and they are living longer. This has made the ageing population become a prominent development issue. The term “ageing population” is used to describe individuals 65 and older in a particular society. The elderly dependency rate is defined as the number of elderly per 100 people of working age (15-64 years). When the elderly dependency rate is high, the working population may be required to pay higher taxes to provide for increased health care and pensions to support the elderly. Each year in the UK there are about 750,000 deaths and 800,000 births. It is also estimated that in just over 50 years there will be 16 million people aged over 65. This can be linked to around 416,000 more additional deaths and 600,100 extra births. In the UK, it has been estimated that by 2045 the percentage of the population aged 65 and over could rise to 24.7 percent, which is about a quarter of the population. However, globally this figure could be even higher with 33 percent, one third of the world’s population. This demonstrates the extent of how drastic an issue the ageing population could become in the future. The graph shows the projected changes in the UK’s population structure and the increase in the elderly dependency ratio. As we can see from the graph, a younger population is declining in numbers due to a decline in birth rates and the older population is increasing due to increased life expectancy. The ageing population poses enormous challenges and opportunities to societies across the globe, therefore it is only through understanding the multi-dimensional impact of population ageing on various aspects of society that proposed solutions are effective and appropriate. This research aims at exploring the socio-economic impact of a growing ageing population on society, which are the positive impacts of ageing on society, social and economic impact on the ageing population, and the impact of a growing elderly population on society.
1.1 Definition of the elderly population
Not only do the terms “elderly people” and “old people” have vague and varying definitions, there is a flexibility in the boundary between middle age and old age (Walker, 1980). This makes it hard to set a standard of how to define the “aged” as our baseline for investigation. However, the most popular and useful definition comes from the World Health Organisation (WHO). WHO has a specific classification for different groups in the older population. First, “young old” describes people who are aged between 65 and 74, “old” is between 75 and 84, and “oldest old” is defined as people who are aged over 85 years old (WHO, 2009). It is a widely used definition and usually helps policy makers and scholars to understand the diversities among the elderly population. Nevertheless, we should keep in mind that it may not be suitable for every situation because nothing is more diverse and complex than the older people themselves. Also, this essay will not analyze the aging process as a biological issue. Instead, it will point out and then give a thorough understanding and general description of what is known and what might be the result in the future, these results which are made available by modern ageing sociologists, who see “age” as just a role with no biological factors attached, but “space” which provides a variety of different aspects of life, in terms of physical, mental, psychological and social interactions (Walker, 1980). Maybe it is a bit uncommon to treat age just as a role in the society but it is a possibility that may become popular as researchers argued that taking “space” as the starting point and drawing it into various aspects of the life, the provision of the differences of each individual will be enriched and social workers may also be benefited from this. Also, there are two main perspectives as to the aged and their places in the society. Age can be seen as a “uniform distinct phase” or it can be seen as a “lingering, diverse phase” (Gubrium and Morgan, 1997). The former suggests that the aged are fundamentally different from the other age groups and therefore they can be studied on their own; whereas the latter proposes that age becomes an integral part of life as a whole and it should be taken into account and linked with other factors such as jobs, families, gender, race and etc. Both of these perspectives have their own theories constructed, how they define and understand “age” as well as “loneliness” and that will be the “bridge” which connects the next section, which is the social well-being and the studies of the implication in the health and social care, and the invalidation of the “population insignificant” perspective.
1.2 Overview of the global aging trend
To complete the content for the section “1.2 Overview of the global aging trend”, we have to provide an extensive overview on this trend: starting with some examples of how aging trend in different countries, and then discussing the rapid increase in the average age creates new social consequences that result in societies having to adapt to support a growing elderly population, and we should conclude this session. The world is experiencing a significant increase in the elderly population. People aged 60 years or older accounted for 12.3 percent of the global population in 2015, and by 2050, the United Nations predicts that the proportion will rise to 21.5 percent, which means almost 2 billion people will be over the age of 60 – more than twice as many as there are today. There are many reasons like better healthcare, healthier living conditions, and things like that, which have led to the increase in the average age of human beings. However, there are different rates of aging in different countries. For example, the most rapid change in the age structure has been occurring in less developed countries. Japan has one of the highest average ages in the world; in contrast, over 40 percent of the population in Africa is under the age of 15 and only 3 percent are aged 60 or over. Over the last few decades, many low birth rate countries, such as those in Western Europe, have seen a dramatic increase in the average age and a steady increase in the elderly population; an aging trend that many experts know as the ‘Greying of Nations’. This is contrasting to places like Africa and many parts of Asia, where the median age is only around 16-18 years old. Such demographic trends in the global population, such as the increase in average age and the proportion of different age groups, not only indicate the relative changes in the number or composition of the human population, but also pose significant social and economic challenges to the societies around the world.
2. Social and economic implications
Aging populations in most western societies are there primarily as a result of modern, industrial nations having better health care provision, higher standards of living, and improved national wealth. Increased life expectancy in the developed world has contributed to the greying of the countries of these societies. On an individual level, the economic outcome of aging population is the balance between the impact of a higher proportion of old people and that of the increasing number of old dependents. However, on a national scale, figures like the dependency ratio will increase. This is a measure of the proportion of nonworking to working individuals, that is, those too old or too young to work to those able to support themselves. As people become more elderly, if birth and employment rates remain the same, there are more and more nonworking people tend to rely upon the working population. This, in turn, means that the individual burden increases, as does the national one; this can place a great strain on governmental spending in a lot of sectors. For example, there will be an increased need for provision of health care, paid for in some part by the national health service but increasingly a case of private health care, since the elderly are more likely to suffer from chronic conditions needing ongoing treatment. However, for the older generation, there is the need for greater provision of social welfare to help support the elderly while they are not working. This can entail anything from sheltered housing for those who are too infirm to live alone, care homes for those requiring full-time attention and support in residential care, to more funding for community facilities like lunch groups. Also, at a national level, governments may make changes to the structure and funding of welfare programs and healthcare planning is possible so as to try and best deal with the changing age ratios and population profile. The main burden on the older generation is funding them if they are no longer able to work. Many countries attribute a certain age over which one’s health deteriorates and it becomes substantially more difficult to maintain employment; in the United Kingdom, it is generally considered to be at sixty-five years old. This is the age at which the state pension becomes payable – in other words, retirement begins. It is payable beyond that age and the elderly population makes considerable use of this, being an income-related benefit. On another individual level, families will have to bear the costs of grandparents not working; these jobs and living expenses may well be funded by the children of the elderly, imposing still further economic costs upon the national working population. Social effects of aging population include the increase in the pension age from sixty-five to sixty-six by 2020; estimates claim that by 2087, post-war babies will die out and population size will have reduced by 15%. This means that the working population will be solely reliant upon government initiatives for long-term sustainability, something which suggests greater expenditure on pensions, healthcare, services for the elderly, and community care facilities. This restructuring of the public services and the national budget is likely to be a consequence of age-related demographic change. Social effects of aging population include the increase in the pension age from sixty-five to sixty-six by 2020; estimates claim that by 2087, post-war babies will die out and population size will have reduced by 15%. This means that the working population will be solely reliant upon government initiatives for long-term sustainability, something which suggests greater expenditure on pensions, healthcare, services for the elderly, and community care facilities.
2.1 Increased healthcare demands
The average person in the world today can expect to live for about twice as long as his or her ancestors did. Unlike in the past, elderly people in most developed countries today have been given the best possible care in terms of their health. There are also financial employment implications to take into account in terms of the contribution made by and for the elderly. Many people would say that we do not look after our elderly as well as we should. Our elderly population is not what it used to be. If you were to look back at history, you would find that the elderly population in early times was not what we are used to today. It was often seen as a burden and old people were put in what were effectively old people’s ‘work houses’ by the family because they did not have the time to care for them themselves. It is important to say that not every elderly person today needs looking after, but there is a growing percentage that do and it is something that we need to take account of in our planning. We cannot ignore the fact that health tends to deteriorate with age and this places greater demands on the country’s healthcare system. Health and social care for the elderly is in most cases a joint responsibility, paid partly by the state and partly from a person’s own pocket. For many elderly people, a hospital stay can be the beginning of a long and difficult recovery. Older patients often have more complex illnesses and may take longer to recover. This puts a huge amount of pressure on not only the health service but also on resources when people.
2.2 Retirement and pension challenges
In a world where the elderly population is growing and the working age population is diminishing, there might not be enough people in work to support public services for the elderly or to care for them. This is a serious problem when it comes to retirement as, thanks to increased life expectancy, people are spending longer in retirement than ever before. Experts suggest that within the next 50 years, the number of over 65s living in the UK is set to nearly double, meaning that there will not be enough people paying into the pension system to keep it going. When the state pension was first introduced in 1948, a 65-year-old could expect to spend 13.5 years in receipt of it – that’s around 23% of their adult life. However, the latest figures show that by 2024, a 65-year-old man can expect to live for another 18.5 years and a woman of the same age can expect to live for another 20.9 years. This increases the risk that the pension system will become unsustainable. Moreover, it’s not just changes to life expectancy that are the problem. The pension system in the UK operates on a process called the ‘dependency ratio’, which basically means the number of workers who are paying into the pension system compared to those who are currently receiving money from it. However, since 1978 – when the UK first introduced the ‘baby bonds’, which reduced the cost of bringing up children – people have been having fewer kids. This means that there will be fewer people in the working age population, so reducing the dependency ratio and putting pressure on the pension system. For the UK, this could mean that there would be no other choice but to increase the age at which people qualify for the state pension. So, in conclusion, the growing elderly population is a massive problem for many pension systems around the world, especially if they also have the same challenges from life expectancy and birth rates as the UK. Moreover, not only will it mean that there will be more people who cannot receive the level of care and support that they need in their old age, but younger generations will also have to work – and pay taxes – for longer in order to fund state care for the elderly.
2.3 Impact on labor force and productivity
But this rapidly aging society has also posed major challenges for policymakers and employers. As a share of the labor force, workers aged 65 and older have almost tripled since the early 2000s. To put this in context, there’s 1.3 billion people between the age of 15 and 64 in the labor force, and there’s 900 million people who are age 65 and over. With people living longer and the large baby boomer population reaching retirement age, more and more elderly people in our society are not only creating and consuming an enormous amount of economic activities, but also they are exerting great pressures on the working population. On one hand, the knowledge of the longer lifespan, higher expectations in health conditions and various benefits after retirement have prevented the elderly employees from making a decision of withdrawing from their work. For instance, statistics has shown that in the United States, the employment rate for people aged 65 to 69 has increased 8.1% since 2000, and for people aged 70 and over, the employment rate has almost risen 4% from only 10.5% in 2000 to 14.4% in 2012. On the other hand, those who hold a demoralized view of continuing their career during the old ages may feel still impotent after retirement. That might be the explanation for an observable labor productivity decline, where the employee cannot totally devote himself to the work, yet the aliquot helps the employer getting harder and harder. This in turn can be seen as justification that the elderly do not have the incentive, or goal of improving the productivity; and this might be a force arguing against the increasing employment in old ages. Last but not least, the longer an individual stays in the workforce, the greater the likelihood that age-related disabilities will impact his or her performance at the workplace. One other meaning of “older workers” in economic perspective is that given the same amount of machines and hours of work, the amount of production will decrease as the labor input increases. Older workers are less productive. Studies show that there is a strong negative relationship between age and productivity. That means the older the workers, the less the output will be; and the result is retirees would have less money on their post-retirement period. Prof. Gary Burtless, who is a research associate in the Economic Studies Program and an expert in labor market policy, puts.
3. Psychological and emotional aspects
Lastly, the essay shall discuss the importance of promoting mental well-being through examining successful preventative strategies that combat poor mental health. These strategies focus on engaging with society, such as utilizing roles in the family and involving in work and leisure activities. Sports and social clubs are good platforms of interacting with others and group activities inspire a sense of purpose and belonging. More importantly, effective connections with others are vital to mental health well-being as it acts as a support system. In fact, studies have shown that the risk of death was significantly reduced in people with social support. Through understanding the power of social activities and networks, organizations and support groups can be developed to improve mental health.
Secondly, mental health issues in the elderly are considered and this comprises a vast spectrum of topics ranging from diagnosable, clinical mental illnesses such as major depressive or anxiety disorders to the more common experiences, such as grief, stress, and cognitive changes including declines in memory. While mental health problems are common, they are very treatable and most people can and do make a complete recovery. In spite of this, mental health, particularly depression, is under-recognized in older adults and they are often reluctant to seek help. This brings attention to the differences and significance in recognizing and addressing mental health issues as people age.
Exploring the psychological and emotional aspects of an aging population, the first point for consideration is loneliness and social isolation. These are issues, as suggested by a growing body of research, that can severely affect the well-being of a person. In fact, evidence shows that perceived isolation or lack of social support can lead to illness or even death. Moreover, loneliness and social isolation are not one and the same thing, although the terms are often used interchangeably. Social isolation connotes the absence of social interactions, contacts and relationships with family and friends, whereas loneliness means the distressing feeling of being alone. It is important to note that someone can be socially isolated but not feel lonely and alternatively, someone can feel lonely despite being surrounded by other people.
3.1 Loneliness and social isolation
The loneliness and social isolation of the elderly are significant problems. In developed countries, according to Agar et al. (2015), about 10% of the elderly population suffers from chronic loneliness. This is a growing social issue and, if left unaddressed, could become a public health concern. Moreover, while aging may bring about loneliness due to life events such as retirement or bereavement, loneliness is not confined to the elderly. Age UK (2018) reports that the effect of loneliness on mortality showed a ‘higher effect size in younger samples compared to older samples’. Evidence-based interventions according to the Effectiveness and Mechanisms Evaluation (EME) Programme Database adopted by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) in the UK include group 16-24 social activities, community 16-24 transport or access to outdoor spaces and therapeutic 16-24 interventions. The potential for these activities to address loneliness through social connections and interaction aligns with the ‘Social Needs Model’ which emphasizes the importance of social relations in alleviating loneliness as proposed by Perlman and Peplau (1984). However, there has been less attention towards the role of social isolation in causing loneliness. Social isolation refers to the ‘quantity and closeness of people’s social network’ (Findlay, 2003) and is distinct from the feeling of loneliness. For example, a person who is socially isolated may not have many social contacts but does not feel lonely, whereas a person who is surrounded by many people in their social network could still feel lonely if they do not feel understood or cared for. Findlay (2003) also identified evidence that ‘isolated individuals are more at risk from premature death than those who are more integrated in the social structure’. Although increasing recognition of the distinction between loneliness and social isolation is observed in scholarly research, the public often uses the terms interchangeably, as evidenced by the UK government’s Loneliness Strategy (HM Government, 2018b) which mentions ‘tackling loneliness and social isolation’ as one of its key themes. Clearly, more public awareness and education on the differences between the two are needed in order to effectively address the issue. Loneliness and social isolation are complex issues that psychologists are only beginning to understand. The effects of loneliness and social isolation on the well-being of the individual and broader society have generated considerable interest. While it is clear that immediate intervention in the form of increased socialization is beneficial, more research is needed to identify and assess which strategies are most effective in different contexts.
3.2 Mental health issues in the elderly
Mental health issues in the elderly encompass more than just the normal aging process but are, in fact, serious medical illnesses that have an impact on the elderly’s emotional, psychological, and physical well-being. The dissertation focuses on the various impact points of the growing elderly population on society, and mental health issues in the elderly is a crucial one to take note of. There is a high prevalence of chronic diseases in the aging population, and research indicates that the coexistence of chronic diseases alongside mental health problems, which is defined as having multiple physical diseases along with a mental health problem, is associated with reduced functioning, early death, a higher prevalence of healthcare utilization, and health-related costs, especially among the elderly. Studies have shown that multiple chronic conditions are a leading cause of death in the aging population, and the associated usage in healthcare services and costs are substantial because the treatment of mental health problems in the elderly is compounded by the existence of other chronic diseases and the elderly’s frequent use of other medications for those comorbid diseases. This is further corroborated by research done for the Royal College of Psychiatrists in the United Kingdom, which identified that depression as a single illness can be responsible for an increase of 50% in long-term outcomes for heart disease and an increase of 100% for cerebrovascular disease, and is a crucial and significantly overlooked factor because a majority of suicide cases amongst the elderly happens due to a diagnosis or struggle with multiple chronic illnesses. Another interesting point to note is that age-related changes in the body may affect the way certain medications can work for the elderly. Mental health problems could also be related to excessive stress due to other illnesses, and this issue is compounded by the variety of psychiatric and medical conditions that can coexist. As such, a comprehensive understanding of treating both the mental illness and physical illness, instead of treating them separately, is required by the carers and healthcare professionals, which would also mean that simply providing better access to medical services while excluding mental health services is not enough for many of the elderly sufferers. Also, research studies have shown that evidence-based psychosocial treatments for most mental illnesses in conjunction with carefully selected psychopharmacology, such as taking into account the possible side effects and the potential use of multiple medications, are most likely to give the correct diagnosis and all-rounded care compared to any single form of treatment. Given the prevalence of such cases, it is no surprise that mental health problems in the elderly have posed a major concern in the healthcare sector, and several researches have been engaged to explore the best possible forms of physical and mental health integrating treatments.
3.3 Strategies for promoting mental well-being
I believe in the principle of positive well-being and think that certain environments and societal conditions can either directly or indirectly preclude an individual from the resources they need to promote their well-being. For example, adverse features of areas of high crime, signs of neglect, broken windows and general disorderliness make communities fearful and defensive which in turn increases intolerance, withdraws from community interaction and damages concepts of collective ownership and identity. It is therefore logical to assume that in promoting well-being in later life, a policy of social work intervention and the creation of specifically beneficial physical environments would help to establish more lasting mobility and independence among the elderly.
Another approach is to create public areas for relaxation like communal gardens or parks, such as the ‘dementia-friendly garden’ recently opened in Chiswick, London. These spaces are especially designed to be stress-free environments with a range of plants, visual and tactile features and opportunities for physical exercise, and have been observed to enhance habits of relaxation and social interaction. Research published in the Journal of Public Health has shown that the provision of community gardening and similar types of therapies can improve social inclusion and promote social, mental and physical health – providing evidence for a very beneficial strategy to promote well-being.
There are several strategies that have been proposed to promote mental well-being, in particular ways to manage and reduce stress in later life. These tend to cover a variety of different approaches, some of which are best suited to a particular type of person or condition, and some which require significant investment to be able to provide on any large scale. For example, the government has tried to encourage the use of more general digital technologies such as telehealth and telecare – the use of combined social and technological solutions as a preventative measure for people with or at risk of developing some form of social care need – in an attempt to make it more accessible and provide a wider range of solutions for elderly people. This can be very effective as it offers a tailored approach and allows both parties to have more control over decisions, and the remote, non-intrusive nature of many digital health services can be less intimidating for older generations.
4. Policy and societal responses
There are various programs and policies being created all around the world in response to the increasing elderly population. In one way or another, both developed and developing countries are experiencing this issue. And the elders may be thinking that “I become a burden to society” or “we already have a lot of problems in society”. However, most of the elderly people do not want to be a burden to family and community, and therefore, individuals are looking forward to support from policymakers. As mentioned above, help is given, and as a result, some elderly respond better to life, which mainly involves physical, social, and environmental factors. Because of World War II (WWII), the United States at that time had around 200,000 old men who wanted some support and care. It was not easy at that time, since most of the old people lived in the almshouse. Varied from the current practice which uses “public charity”, the almshouse was an answer for the “old who were drained of their ability to support themselves” by the 1830s. But the fact is that “only a scattering of outdoor relief” was given to the old. It was until 1935 that the policy was passed. With the Social Security Act, public relief was being reduced while the government gave a bit more relief by providing guidelines for the subsidy-grant program. There are many different programs which offer a wealth of different research-based and creative solutions to the challenge of providing for the needs of an increasing elderly population. For example, the “Application-Service-Provider Model” which is funded by the United States National Institute of Health (NIH), Tucker and his colleagues found that some of the group of elderly individuals in the community at Ottumwa, Iowa. By installing a new computerized health information system at a local clinic, a powerful, web-based information and intervention system called “Well Connected” could be formed. This is for the non-institutionally based people, particularly for the chronically ill elderly. And under Title III of the Older Americans Act, nutrition programs have also been developed by providing meals to older adults and supporting the improvement of the health and nutrition of the elderly. It also promotes the socialization of older individuals. Well, policy researchers unlock the complexity of policymaking. Work that contributes to the understanding of what is best for the elderly and how quality of life might be improved through policy change is actively encouraged by the government and nonprofit organizations. It is the hope of policymakers and researchers that new theories and models will be developed, tested, and ultimately applied in real-world settings in order to optimize the effectiveness of policy decisions. In conclusion, in order to create supportive environments for the elderly, the economy, family, and social support systems need to be considered. Last but not least, ageism, the barriers of infrastructure, the negative surroundings of the physical environment, and the social environments (such as in the family and in the media, etc.) will impact the health of the communities for the elderly and for the aging.
4.1 Government initiatives and programs
This section has detailed the two main types of Medicare, which are the original Medicare and the Medicare Advantage. It mentions about the eligibility and the Medicare coverage for both inpatient and outpatient services. It also introduces the Medicare spending in recent years and predicted Medicare spending in the future. There is also a timeline to fully explain the implementation of Medicare from the beginning of 1965 until the today’s Medicare program and all the way to 2022. According to the timeline, it shows how the government has improved and increased the benefits of Medicare to meet the needs of the growing numbers of elderly population. Last but not least, it briefly mentions about the Medicaid and its program. Well, this is very comprehensive. However, there is little bit puzzled that why Medicaid program is located at the end of this section. Maybe it will be clearer if Medicaid is presented before the timeline of the Medicare program. Overall, this section provides a critical review of the program and discusses whether advanced economies order their policies toward an ever expanding welfare state. It demonstrates the political, social and institutional constraints and opportunities in policy communities that are offered by the aging of Society. I found this section of the essay is quite interesting and informative. Also, the author manages to keep the readers’ interest by using the comparative views of both “Conservative theorists” and “Institutional theories” in analyzing the impact of the aging population. Furthermore, the vivid explanations in this section offer the readers a better understanding about the aging population and the necessary steps that should be taken in the reformation of the Medicare program.
4.2 Community-based support systems
According to an article in Lancaster Arch Geriatrics, a community-based support system aims to empower the elderly to age in place by harnessing the strengths present in the community. One key aspect of community-based programs is a focus on family involvement and caregiver support. Helping family members juggle the demands of work, parenting, and caring for an elderly relative has also been a focus of these community-based programs. By providing social support, educational resources, and respite care for caregivers, family members are better able to provide the necessary care for their elderly relative. Marina Socio Rizzi, in her article, believes that community-based approaches to supporting the elderly are particularly important in light of recent studies showing that the number of people who live in licensed nursing homes, assisted living facilities, and other institutional settings is on the rise. She suggests that programs providing extensive, accessible, and consistent community-based support would help to lower the utilization of health care resources by the elderly, which may result in alleviating some of the strain on more formal health care programs. Additionally, community-based support programs, by aiming to optimize the functionality of the elderly populations, may help to reduce hospitalizations for avoidable conditions and promote health and wellbeing as it encourages a more active lifestyle. Rizzi concludes, however, that further geriatric research is needed to bolster support for the expansion of these programs and to demonstrate the impact of such initiatives in order to truly encourage community-based services for the elderly.
4.3 Intergenerational interactions and benefits
However, not only the elderly people will benefit from those interactions. Research has found that young people also gain from positive interactions with their older counterparts. They are given a sense of self-worth and an opportunity to foster intergenerational friendships, and learn valuable experience from their elders. The physical, emotional and social benefits are usually the key factors to be identified in these interactions. The remedies for reducing social isolation within the framework of older people’s holistic needs, particularly by promoting and facilitating their social engagement, have been lasted for decades and adopted in many developed countries. Such practices are moving on to more community-based and person-centered approaches, in which intergenerational activities are the most important components. Older people are being encouraged to become volunteers in order to initiate and participate in different intergenerational activities, for example, providing support to family services and taking up roles as foster grandparents. Nevertheless, troubles in facilitating these kinds of activities come along in practice. With such a wide range of young people benefiting from the service and different parental expectations, there are some practical difficulties in ensuring effective and safe practice which may really compromise the sustainability of the services. Also, it is important to recognize the needs and preferences of older people, instead of ‘forcing’ them to be with younger generations. People should not hold the view that different activities or services are going to be suitable for all older people. The choice should be based upon individual preferences and resources should be made available to respond to the diversity. Last but not least, it is essential to keep a balance between promoting intergenerational work and recognizing and respecting older people as valuable resources in their own right. This is to ensure they will not be objectified as the means to achieve the objectives of another age group.
Critical Aspects of Globalization in Medical Research
Critical Aspects of Globalization in Medical Research 1. Introduction There is little doubt that the promotion of global health is a noble goal. However, the methods by which research aimed at improving health in low-income countries is an area where careful consideration of the implications of globalization is required. Many of these studies are reliant […]
