Cognition and Human Performance
What are some problems with introspection as a method of studying cognition? How do reaction times and errors help us test models of information processing?
Introspection, as a technique of studying cognition, pays attention to the extensive and objective analysis of the content that is in one’s thought. This dynamic, as developed by Wilhelm Wundt, is based on experimental self-observation. Thus, studying how human beings reason, acquire knowledge and understand different concepts is possible through the evaluation of one’s mental state made possible by this technique (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Despite its usefulness, some challenges are associated with the approach, and they can be summed up in threefold. One of the problems with introspection is that it employs biases which corrupt introspection. Cognitive biases can be in the form of a positivity bias in which there is the inclination of oneself to view the self in a socially desirable manner and a positive dynamic as well. Additionally, cognitive biases can be evidenced by perceptual confirmation as well as self-consistency. In other terms, self-reflection is aligned with previous beliefs and expectations (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Another problem with the technique is that it does not allow bias to be perceived and inhibits its correction. The mind might be willing to adopt thoughts that are objective and clearer, but it will be inclined to ignore or rather overlook the mental biases. In most cases, the biases are subconsciously noted making it difficult to perceive them. Lastly, there is the problem of the inability of oneself to penetrate their subconscious. The unconscious part of the mind offer barrier that limits access to mental processes as well as introspections. Thought processes are embedded deep in the subconscious and accessing them is impossible thus limiting the effectiveness of introspection. Reaction times help in testing information processing in the sense that they provide the means through which the speed and accuracy of perception take place. When the reaction time is short, it brings into perspective that information processing was fast, and it is likely to be accurate (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). On the other hand, when the reaction time was is long, information processing was slow and is most likely to be inaccurate. By bringing about the dynamics of time differences, it is possible to learn the concept of information processing by the mind based on the speed of reaction.
Describe the two proposed visual processing pathways: one specialized for recognizing objects and one for dealing with navigation and the spatial location and movement of objects and self. How might visual illusions and case studies of acquired brain injury support this dual pathway model?
The two proposed visual processing pathways are such that they are broad subsystems which function in a way that allow sub-serving of objects as well as spatial vision. They are also uniquely set in a way that they are organized structurally and divided into two distinct brain pathways. In so doing, the two visual processing pathways are uniquely set so that they can be able to carry out individual tasks in an effective means due to the distinct pathways each of them has. The types of tasks that they mediate are different making the structural distinction a valid means of adaptation so that they can be able to function more appropriately. In the visual processing pathways specialized for recognizing objects, ventral stream allowing processing of object information is undertaken (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Thus, the details of an object are used to help in making the distinction about the object and its characteristics. On the other hand, the visual processing pathways specialized for dealing with navigation and the spatial location and movement of objects and self is such that it carries out dorsal stream helping in the processing of spatial information. Thus, the two can be differentiated in that one is the dorsal system and it focuses on transforming visual information so that direct action can follow but through the use of an egocentric frame (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Visual illusions support this dual pathway model in that they present the dynamics of dorsal streaming, which is altered as perceptions of reality are affected. Therefore, the object characteristics such as its location cannot be ascertained properly an indication that the visual processing pathways specialized for recognizing objects are affected. The other pathway might function properly if it is unaffected. Acquired brain injuries also present the same perspective in that the part of the brain that deals with ventral streaming might be damaged, but the dorsal streaming might be unaffected (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Hence, visual illusions and case studies of acquired brain injury expound on the fact that there is a dual pathway that differentiates the tasks that are performed by the brain relating to visual systems.
Describe, with examples, Gibson’s notions of direct perception, information pickup and affordances. Explain how these ideas can be used to understand visually-guided action.
One of Gibson’s notions is cognition (information pickup). Cognition refers to the way that people comprehend things. According to Gibson, cognition is a process, and it is characterized by the acquisition of knowledge and understanding of the concepts that have been garnered. On that note, thought, people’s senses, as well as experience, are the dynamics that affect cognition. In addition to the above, Gibson also notes that cognition is not an abstract concept in that it is embedded in the body structure and physical surroundings as well (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). A good example of cognition is learning that is characterized by students exposing their minds to different forms of raw data that they process to gain understanding. Perception, which is another notion presented by Gibson, refers to the ability of the body to carry out basic actions with little or no thought. Therefore, according to Gibson, the body can perceive and accordingly. The notion of perception is also evidenced by the ability of the brain to interact with other structures of the environment (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). An example of perception is the ability of a spider to traverse intricacies of its web through coupling with the environment. Such a spider can perceive the challenge it is facing without a brain and interact with the environment to unwind from its web. Affordances, as explained by Gibson, refer to the dynamics that the environment provides to an animal (and in this case human beings). People are afforded different things some of which might be good and others might be bad (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). The aspects that are afforded to the human population allow them to interact with the environment. People have hands, which are an example of affordance, and it allows them to hold things. The hands allow people, for example, to climb trees and to be able to communicate with others using gestures. These ideas are useful in understanding visually-guided actions in that cognition allows their understanding, perception allows the unconscious awareness of the environmental factors, while affordances allow aspects that can be identified to be customized for effective outcomes.
Describe the special features of biological motion. Outline evidence for and against the role of the mirror neuron system in detection of biological motion, imitation and interpreting intent.
Biological action refers to the ability of human beings to recognize the actions and activities they have been involved in before. Perception is the tool that makes it easier to recognize such actions through identification, experience, as well as a higher level of neural processing. The relevance of biological motion is that it allows conceptualization of neural; processes that range from understanding, communication, to empathy (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Understanding biological motion means that the activities that are undertaken by biological organisms are the ones being observed as they bring about motion. Thus, the role that cognition perception, and affordance are the tools that are used to comprehend these forms of motion. Before expounding on the features of biological motion, it is fair to note that it is still a wonder how the human body can achieve robust generalization from normal to point-light stimuli reaction. One of the features of biological motion is the body’s ability to extract mid-level optic flow features. The production is within the coarse spatial arrangement, and the outcome is that the neural circuits being exploited for recognition (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). This feature is based on the fact that the brain has established informative mid-level features that help in perception. An additional characteristic of the simple mid-level optic flow features is that they contain dominant local optic flow features. There is also the critical human stimulus that is uniquely set to be able to identify patterns that are similar to the ones being exhibited allowing for the cognition of actions being undertaken. Lastly, the neural model is another aspect that makes a biological motion to be enhanced as it plays the role of extracting the mid-level optic flow features. The mirror neuron system enhances imitation, and this is evidenced by the flow of information through the IPL, IFG, as well as the STS. STS allows the order visual processing in the fronto-parietal MNS which copies the motor plan (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). The mirror neuron system enhances biological motion, and this is evidenced by a visual hypothesis, generate test model, as well as the direct-match hypothesis. Intent interpretation by the MNS is evidenced by interpretation meaning it is aligned to the visual hypothesis, generation by test model, as well as the direct-match hypothesis (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). MNS influences all these components, and there is no substantial evidence arguing against its impact on biological motion, imitation and interpreting intent.
Describe three (3) early models of attention. What are the important differences between them? What types of experiments have identified strengths and weaknesses in these models?
Broadbent’s filter model is one example of a model of attention. The model (developed in 1958) argues in support of selective attention in that that Broadbent explains that it is impossible to attend to all the sensory input consciously. Thus, the physical characteristics of the messages, as well as the stimuli, determine the messages that are to receive more attention. The model continues to expound on this dynamic by explaining that all stimuli are directed towards the unlimited capacity sensory buffer. Treisman’s attenuation model is another example. The model (developed in 1964) argues in support of selective attention as well (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). It is based on the notion of bottleneck filter in that messages are absorbed by a large proportion, and the message that receives the most attention is distinctively highlighted. Thus, the similarity between Treisman and Broadbent is that they both argue in support of selective attention. However, the two models are different in that Broadbent eliminates the messages that are not selected for further processing (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). On the contrary, Treisman attenuates the material that does not receive attention. Hence, in the case of Treisman, the unattended stimuli are still under processing while in Broadbent’s model, the messages do not receive further processing. Late-Filter Model by Deutsch and Deutsch is the third model. It argues that the filtration of concepts to receive attention takes place after analysis of stimuli and meaning has occurred. It is different from Treisman’s attenuation model and Broadbent’s filter model in that it argues that all information is processed equally to ascertain meaning before filtration occurs based on the meaning that has been developed (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). The dichotic listening task is the experiment that is carried out to enhance understanding of these models. According to this experiment, a weakness by Broadbent’s filter model is that unattended messages might be analyzed subconsciously. On the other hand, Treisman’s attenuation model has the strength of arguing in support of unattended messages being analyzed in the subconscious (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Hence, its strength is that it overcomes most of Broadbent’s weaknesses. It also has the strength of explaining semantic analysis (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). With Late-Filter Model, it is impossible to assess with the dichotic listening task as participants in the experiment argue that they process what they hear making it impossible to validate claims by Deutsch and Deutsch relating to the model.
Distinguish between divided and selective (focused) attention. Compare and contrast the features of focused endogenous and exogenous visual attention. Describe the effect of perceptual versus cognitive load on focused attention.
Selective attention refers to the direction of awareness to stimuli that are deemed relevant and being ignorant that which is deemed irrelevant (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Divided attention refers to the processing of messages from two or more stimuli (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). In other terms, these two concepts are different in that selective attention processes specific stimuli while divided attention processes dual or multiple stimuli at a go. Endogenous visual attention, on one end, refers to the goal-driven awareness that entails focusing on individual visual stimuli selected over others (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Exogenous visual attention is stimulus-driven meaning that focus on visual stimuli is always changing depending on the type of stimuli (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). However, both focused endogenous and exogenous visual attention are similar in the sense that there is prioritization of the visual stimuli being viewed. In the case of exogenous visual attention, there is the primary stimulus based on the features of the environment regardless of the presence of other stimuli (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Effect of cognitive load on focused attention is that it enhances the conscious perspective of focused attention in that it allows goal-driven endogenous visual attention. On the other hand, perceptual load allows the subconscious to focus on the stimuli and allow for processing of messages that have been given attention.
List the factors that determine how well we operate in dual task conditions. Describe, with examples, the four major dimensions of multiple resource theory. How does multiple resource theory differ from the concept of mental workload?
Task similarity, practice, and task difficulty are the three factors that determine how well we operate in dual-task conditions (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Concerning task similarity, similar tasks are easy to carry out as they require less mental effort. In other terms, the processes and undertakings that had been employed in the first task are also deployed in the second task making it easy to carry them out simultaneously. In terms of practice, the procedures that are to be undertaken for the tasks determine its rate of success. In other terms, the tasks that require a set of professional skillset are more challenging as opposed to those who do not require a prowess with the given practices. Lastly, task difficulty also affects how well operations are in dual tasks. In other terms, difficult tasks are challenging and inhibit the level of success of the dual tasks. The multiple resource model gives four dimensions that account for the variance in time-sharing performance. The four dimensions are modalities (such as auditory and visual), codes (such as spatial and verbal), responses (such as vocal and manual), as well as stages (such as perception, cognition, and responding) (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). According to stages, the resources that are used for perceptual activities are the same. They aid in cognitive activities. Modalities, on the other hand, refers to the existence of there is intra-modal as well as cross-modal time-sharing. It is a combination of auditory and visual means of cognition and perception (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Codes allow the distinction of processes that are spatial and analogue as well as processes that are categorical and symbolic. The response, lastly, refers to the dimension that determines the reaction and reply that is exhibited based on perception and interpretation of content (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Multiple resource theory differs from the concept of mental workload in that it accounts for variance in time-sharing performance while mental workload influences the process of selective attention.
Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multistore model of memory. Describe the components of Baddeley’s multicomponent model of working memory that evolved from Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Short Term Memory. How might Working Memory and Long Term Memory interact?
The multistore model of memory is also referred to as the modal model. It was developed in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin. As a structural model, it argues that memory exists in three dynamics which are the sensory trigger, short-term memory, as well as long-term memory. Information undergoes storage in a linear manner in that there is the processing of the data that is attained before storage. In detail, the theory explains that there is the detection of information by the sense of organs which then enters the sensory memory. If the information is given attention, it enters the short-term memory before it is rehearsed and enters the long-term memory. However, rehearsal through revision is necessary for the information to remain in storage (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). The multistore model of memory developed in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin gave rise to Baddeley’s multicomponent model of working memory. Its components are central executive, phonological loop, and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). The central executive serves the purpose of monitoring and coordinating the functioning of the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. It also determines the information that is going to address as well as the part of the memory to deal with the given information. The phonological loop is the part of the memory that focuses on spoken and written material (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). It has the phonological store that holds information in the speech-based form and articulatory control process which rehearses information from the phonological store (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Working memory and long term memory interact in that the working memory processes information before it is sent to long-term memory (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). In addition to this, they interact in that long-term memory relies on working memory to detect stimuli that trigger the long-term memory to identify information that is not regularly accessed.
Describe the neurobiological evidence from human and animal studies for multiple memory systems. What brain areas are thought to be involved in declarative (cognitive) versus procedural (stimulus-response, “habit”-based) memory?
In mammals, emotional arousal that is induced by stress or even anxiety is one of the neurobiological evidence for multiple sensory memory systems. In mammals, memory exists in multiple systems meaning that there is differentiation of the types of memory (Packard & Goodman, 2012). For example, in mammals, emotional arousal has a differential effect on the cognitive as well as stimulus-response. The presence of multiple memory systems in mammals can be showcased by the bias by the animals to use striatal-dependent habit memory in dual-solution tasks (Packard & Goodman, 2012). Animals such as the hippocampus and dorsal striatum are consistent with this finding which evidences the presence of multiple memory systems. The brain areas involved in declarative (cognitive) memory are located within the hippocampus. Thus, the hippocampus, as well as the temporal cortex, is the chief areas (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). It is fair to note that declarative memory focuses on the conscious recollection of events, locations, as well as figures. Thus, the hippocampus has the obligation of retaining episodic memories. In other terms, such memories are recorded in this part of the brain (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). It functions by identifying commonalities that exist between events as well as episodes hence creating links between specific memories. Thus, these two parts allow high-level cognitive functioning. It is the cerebellum and the prefrontal cortex that are responsible for procedural (stimulus-response, “habit”-based) memory (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). In most cases, procedural memory is made up of semantic tasks, and it is the prefrontal cortex that is responsible for remembering these tasks (Eysenck & Keane, 2013). Procedural memory is part of long-term memory. Thus, it is greatly associated with the cerebellum and the prefrontal cortex as they are the parts of the brain that deal with long-term memory. On the other hand, declarative (cognitive) memory is a form of short-term memory. Short-term memory is associated with hippocampus as well as the temporal cortex.
References
Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2013). Cognitive psychology: A student’s handbook. Psychology press.
Packard, M. G., & Goodman, J. (2012). Emotional arousal and multiple memory systems in the mammalian brain. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 6, 14.
