Introduction to Ethics
Defining ethics
The English word “ethics” relates to the enactment of one’s character”.
It comes from the word êthos – meaning “character, moral nature”.
Standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as:
the ideal human character or
moral duty
Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a set of rules outlining the social norms, religious rules and responsibilities of, and or proper practices for, an individual.
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves:
systematizing
defending
recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct
The common theme of all ethical philosophies is determining or finding matters of value or ……..
…… the degree of importance of some things or actions with the aim of determining
what actions are best to do
what is right or wrong
Why? – to achieve “the good”, benevolence, propriety for the self and others.
Most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs and the law and don’t treat ethics as a stand-alone concept.
The word ethics in attempts to use reason to answer various kinds of ethical questions.
Ethics can be a question of how one should live. It is a generic human capacity.
Ethics refers to a common human ability to think critically about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such values.
Determining matters of value includes the area of philosophy called:
axiology:
ethics – the concepts of “right” and “good” in individual and social conduct
aesthetics – the nature of art, beauty and taste and with the creation or appreciation of beauty
In determining Matters of Value……….
……….Values have degrees of importance to us……… meaning we have a range of values from
primary to secondary values
broadly defined preferences
transient opinions
Our value system starts with our underpinning belief structure that affects our ethical behavior, which is the basis of our intentional activities
Thus, in our goal of determining appropriate courses of actions or outcome, what makes something ethically valuable to us is:
the degree of importance of our own values we place on that something or action
An action or something, however, can also be “philosophically good”
Something that is philosophically good is something that is valued “in itself,” or “by itself,” and not for the sake of anything else
Humor is sometimes intrinsically good. No one is morally required to have a sense of humor but It’s good in itself
Other examples of things that may be intrinsically or philosophically good are:
nature
art
music or
language
…..…things that may be aesthetically beautiful. The study of value in things is call Axiology
Our values, whether shaped intrinsically or in combination with our:
vices and virtues,
experiences,
defining moments,
moral principles,
religious and political ideologies,
social conscience, and
aesthetic values, all have influence on our attitudes and ethical actions.
This whole “values” set ultimately reflects a person’s sense of right and wrong or what “ought” to be.
Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:
Meta-ethics – concerning the theoretical meaning of moral propositions, and how their truth values (if any) can be determined
Virtuous ethics – describes the character of a moral person as a driving force for ethical behavior
3. Normative ethics – concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action
Meta-ethics
Meta-ethics is philosophical ethics that asks:
how we understand,
know about, and
what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong.
Meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts
An ethical question pertaining to a particular practical situation cannot be a meta-ethical question (rather, this is an applied ethical question).
A meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific questions.
A meta-ethical question, for example, “Is it ever possible to have secure knowledge of what is right and wrong?”
Moral skepticism is a metaethical theory that says no one has any moral knowledge. Moral skeptics make the claim that moral knowledge is impossible.
Moral skepticism is opposed to the view that there are knowable and objective moral truths.
Moral skepticism concludes that:
We are unjustified in believing any moral claim because it is irrational for us to believe either that any moral claim is true or false.
Noncognitivism holds that we can never know that any moral claim is true because moral claims are incapable of being true or false.
Instead, moral claims are expressions of emotion (e.g. “stealing babies: Boo!”), or expressions of “pro-attitudes” (“I do not believe that babies should be stolen.”)
Knowledge bearing on human life is placed highest, while all other knowledge was secondary.
Self-knowledge is considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person will act completely within his capabilities to his pinnacle, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty.
A person must become aware of every fact (and its context) relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge.
People will naturally do what is good if they know what is right.
Evil or bad actions are the results of ignorance.
Any person who knows what is truly right will automatically do it, according to Virtue ethics.
2. Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics describes the character of a moral person as a driving force for ethical behavior
They encourage people to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of humankind.
Being virtuous is when a person acts in accordance with virtue. A person will do good and be content.
On the other hand, unhappiness and frustration are caused by doing wrong, thus leading to failed goals and a poor life
Virtue ethics correlates
knowledge with virtue and
equates virtue with joy
Virtue ethics is based on character traits such as:
being truthful
practical wisdom
happiness
flourishing
well-being
It focuses on the type of person we ought to be, not on specific actions that should be taken.
Basically, the moral person is grounded in:
good character
motives
core values
Virtual ethics are made up of moral virtues and intellectual virtues
Aristotle suggests that moral and intellectual virtues are developed in different ways.
intellectual virtues are developed through teaching and instruction
moral virtues are developed through a process of habituation
moral virtues need to be practiced acting in virtuous ways. Moral virtue comes only through repetition and experience. A process of habituation
intellectual virtues are about awareness and connection with reality.
Intellectual virtues are distinguishable from moral virtues because IV share an underlying motivation for cognitive contact with reality.
Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All other things, such as civic life or wealth, were only made worthwhile and of benefit when employed in the practice of the virtues.
The practice of the virtues is the surest path to happiness. Keep in mind, not all moral virtues involve a concern for the well-being of others (benevolence)
Moral Virtues
Courage in the face of fear
Temperance in the face of pleasure and pain
Liberality with wealth and possessions
Magnificence with great wealth and possessions
Magnanimity with great honors
Proper ambition with normal honors
Truthfulness with self-expression
Wittiness in conversation
Friendliness in social conduct
Modesty in the face of shame or shamelessness
Righteous indignation in the face of injury
Intellectual virtues
intelligence, which apprehends fundamental truths (such as definitions, self-evident principles)
science, which is skill with inferential reasoning (such as proofs, syllogisms, demonstrations)
theoretical wisdom, which combines fundamental truths with valid, necessary inferences to
reason well about unchanging truths.
good sense — passing judgment, “sympathetic understanding“
understanding — comprehending what others say, does not issue commands
practical wisdom — knowledge of what to do, knowledge of changing truths, issues commands
art, craftsmanship
3. Normative ethics
Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act.
Normative ethics examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions.
Normative ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief.
Hence, normative ethics is sometimes called prescriptive, rather than descriptive.
Traditionally, normative ethics (also known as moral theory) was the study of what makes actions right and wrong.
These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions.
Normative ethics includes: (Focus on these three)
Deontological ethics
Consequentialism
Utilitarianism
1. Deontological ethics
Deontological ethics holds that the morality of an action should be based on whether that action itself is right or wrong under a series of rules, rather than based on the consequences of the action.
It is sometimes described as
duty-, obligation- or
rule-based ethics.
Deontological ethics is commonly contrasted to consequentialism
2. Consequentialism
Consequentialism holds that the consequences of one’s conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness or wrongness of that conduct.
From a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right act (or omission from acting) is one that will produce a good outcome, or consequence.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues the proper course of action is one that maximizes a positive effect, such as “happiness”, “welfare”, or the ability to live according to personal preferences
Some argue that the Normative ethics (consequentialist and deontological) are only feasible if the two schools ground themselves in divine law or in religious conviction
It is proposed that those who do not give ethical credence to notions of divine law take up virtue ethics – virtues held up to “universal standards”
Deontological ethics
Deontological ethics or deontology, meaning “obligation, and duty” is an approach to ethics that determines goodness or rightness from examining acts, or the rules and duties that the person doing the act strove to fulfill.
This is in contrast to consequentialism, in which rightness is based on the consequences of an act, and not the act by itself.
Under deontology, an act may be considered right even if the act produces a bad consequence, if it follows the rule or moral law.
According to the deontological view, people have a duty to act in a way that does those things that are inherently good as acts (“truth-telling” for example), or follow an objectively obligatory rule.
Consequentialism
Consequentialism refers to moral theories that hold the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action (or create a structure for judgment.
Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right action is one that produces a good outcome, or consequence. This view is often expressed as “The ends justify the means”.
The defining feature of consequentialist moral theories is the weight given to the consequences in evaluating the rightness and wrongness of actions.
In consequentialist theories, the consequences of an action or rule generally outweigh other considerations.
3. Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues the proper course of action is one that maximizes a positive effect, such as “happiness”, “welfare”, or the ability to live according to personal preferences.
Utilitarianism is the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory.
This form of utilitarianism holds that the morally correct action is the one that produces the best outcome for all people affected by the action.
Utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure is more highly valued than the pursuit of other pleasures
